Main Ideas
1. Monetary Policy Overview: Monetary policy involves managing the money supply to influence the economy, primarily executed by central banks like the Federal Reserve (Fed) in the U.S.
2. Central Banks' Roles: Central banks regulate commercial banks and manage monetary policy to ensure financial stability and economic growth.
3. Interest Rates: The price of borrowing money, influenced by the money supply. Low interest rates encourage borrowing and spending, while high rates discourage them.
4. Types of Monetary Policy:
Expansionary Monetary Policy: Increasing the money supply to lower interest rates and stimulate spending.
Contractionary Monetary Policy: Decreasing the money supply to raise interest rates and curb spending.
5. Historical Context: The Fed's actions during economic crises can have profound effects. For instance, during the Great Depression, the Fed's inaction led to bank failures and prolonged economic downturns.
6. Changing the Money Supply:
Reserve Requirement: Altering the amount banks must hold in reserves affects how much they can lend.
Discount Rate: Changing the rate at which banks borrow from the Fed impacts money availability.
Open Market Operations: Buying or selling government bonds to adjust the money supply.
7. Quantitative Easing: A form of monetary stimulus where the Fed buys long-term assets to inject liquidity into the economy, particularly used during the 2008 financial crisis.
8. Inflation Concerns: Increasing the money supply can lead to inflation, yet post-2008, inflation rates remained low despite significant monetary expansion.
9. Excess Reserves: High levels of banks' excess reserves (money not lent out) have contributed to low inflation, amidst uncertainties in lending standards and the economic environment.
10. Policy Effectiveness: The effectiveness of monetary versus fiscal policy varies based on the economic context, with monetary policy typically aiding in standard fluctuations while fiscal policy may be more effective in severe downturns.
Quotes
1. "The Fed is the banker's bank, so if a commercial bank needs money, they can borrow from The Fed."
2. "Monetary policy is what makes The Fed and the Fed Chair so influential."
3. "If the central bank wants to speed up the economy, they can increase the money supply, which will decrease interest rates and lead to more borrowing and spending."
4. "In the late 1970s, prices were rising at up to 13% per year. Inflation is usually more like 2% to 4%."
5. "We did it. We're very sorry. We won't do it again." — Ben Bernanke on the Fed's mistakes during the Great Depression.
6. "There are just no easy answers here... sorry."
7. "Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon." — Milton Friedman.
8. "The Fed gets blamed for prolonging the Depression because it didn't give banks emergency loans."
9. "When you add a lot of made-up money to the economy, prices can rise."
10. "It's The Fed's job to take away the punch bowl just as the party's getting started."
Transcript
Jacob: Welcome to Crash Course: Economics. I'm Jacob Clifford.
Adrienne: I'm Adrienne Hill, and today we're talking about monetary policy.
Jacob: Each year, TIME magazine comes out with a list of the world's 100 most influential people.
Adrienne: It includes heads of state, religious leaders, entrepreneurs, artists, activists, singers, and actors—both famous and infamous. There's one person on that list—someone who is arguably the most influential person on earth—that most people don't know. Their decisions, good or bad, likely impact billions of people: Janet Yellen.
Jacob: She steers the largest economy in the world. Janet Yellen is a big deal, and she's a big deal because of monetary policy.
The Federal Reserve is the central bank of the United States, and it's commonly called "The Fed." Europe has the European Central Bank (ECB), and other countries have institutions that play similar roles. Most central banks have two important jobs. First, they regulate and oversee the nation’s commercial banks by ensuring that banks have enough money in their reserves to avoid bank runs. Their second job, and the focus of our discussion today, is to conduct monetary policy, which involves increasing or decreasing the money supply to speed up or slow down the overall economy. Monetary policy is what makes The Fed and the Fed Chair so influential.
Let's start with interest rates. An interest rate is the price of borrowing money. When banks lend money, they expect to be repaid the amount they lent, called the principal, plus a percentage of the principal to cover inflation and earn a profit. That percentage is called the interest rate. The number of car loans, student loans, home loans, and business loans that get made depends on interest rates. When interest rates are low, borrowers find it easier to pay back loans, so they borrow more and spend more. When interest rates are high, borrowers borrow less and, therefore, spend less.
In the U.S., The Fed doesn't have the power to tell banks what interest rate to charge customers. Instead, The Fed manipulates interest rates by changing the money supply. If The Fed increases the money supply, there’ll be plenty of money for banks to loan out. Borrowers will shop around for the best deal on a loan, and banks will be forced to lower interest rates because they need to compete or else no one will borrow from them. A decrease in the money supply has the opposite effect. Less money means banks have less money to loan out, so they’ll try to offer the highest interest rate possible. Thus, less money leads to higher interest rates.
If the central bank wants to speed up the economy, they can increase the money supply, which will decrease interest rates and lead to more borrowing and spending. That’s called Expansionary Monetary Policy. If the central bank wants to slow down the economy, they decrease the money supply; less money available will increase interest rates and decrease spending. That’s called Contractionary Monetary Policy.
Adrienne: Here are some real-life examples. After the Dot Com bust and then 9/11, the U.S. economy was in a slump or a recessionary gap. Output was low, and unemployment was high. To speed up the economy, The Fed boosted the money supply, which lowered interest rates. This made borrowing easier, increased spending, and as a result, the economy began growing again, albeit slowly.
Here's another example. In the late 1970s, prices were rising at up to 13% per year. Inflation is usually more like 2% to 4%. The Fed Chairman, Paul Volcker, decreased the money supply, causing interest rates to shoot up. People bought fewer homes and cars, and businesses invested less. Contractionary Monetary Policy drove down inflation, but with the downside of increasing unemployment. There are just no easy answers here... sorry.
During the Great Depression, though, The Fed blew it! Seventy-three years later, Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke admitted, "We did it. We're very sorry. We won't do it again."
So what did The Fed do wrong? Well, there are two things that keep the banking system healthy: confidence and liquidity. When customers deposit money in a bank, they need to feel confident they're going to get their money back. In the early years of The Great Depression, The Fed allowed several large banks to fail, causing widespread panic and bank runs in other banks. The result was that a third of all banks collapsed.
The banks failed because they didn't have liquid assets, which is a fancy way of saying the banks had stocks, bonds, and mortgages but not cash. So when depositors rushed to withdraw their money, the banks couldn't pay. The Fed gets blamed for prolonging the Depression because it didn't give banks emergency loans, which would have increased liquidity in banks and the money supply in general.
But how does a central bank change the money supply? In the U.S., there are three main ways. Let's go to the Thought Bubble...
When you deposit money in a bank, the bank holds a portion of deposits and loans the rest out. This is called Fractional Reserve Banking. The fraction of deposits that banks are required to hold in reserves is conveniently called the Reserve Requirement. The first way The Fed can change the money supply is by changing that requirement. Decreasing the Reserve Requirement will increase the money supply, while increasing the Reserve Requirement will decrease it.
The Fed is the banker's bank, so if a commercial bank needs money, they can borrow from The Fed. The second way The Fed can change the money supply is by changing the interest rate that it charges banks. That interest rate is called the Discount Rate. Decreasing the Discount Rate will make it easier for banks to borrow, which will increase the money supply. Increasing that rate will decrease the money supply.
The third way to change the money supply is difficult because it requires Janet Yellen to get approval from the Illuminati, the secret cabal that runs the world. Nah, I'm just kidding. The third method is called Open Market Operations. This is when The Federal Reserve buys or sells short-term government bonds. A government bond, or something like a treasury bill, is an IOU issued by the government that says, "I'll pay you back later." Banks hold those bonds because they earn interest and are generally less risky than stocks.
If The Fed buys these previously issued government bonds from a bank, it increases that bank's liquidity and the money supply. If The Fed issues more bonds, the banks will have less liquidity and less money to loan out, which will decrease the money supply. In the U.S., deciding how many bonds to buy and sell is done by the Federal Open Market Committee.
Adrienne: Thanks, Thought Bubble! With these options at its disposal, The Fed can increase or decrease the money supply pretty darn quickly. The option they use most often is Open Market Operations.
During the 2008 financial crisis, when the economy was in severe recession, The Fed went straight to work, buying massive amounts of bonds, boosting the money supply and dropping interest rates to practically zero. But it wasn't enough; the economy was still in bad shape, so The Fed did something very uncommon in the history of central banks. It increased its monetary stimulus through something called Quantitative Easing. We call it Q.E. at work because Q.E. rolls off the tongue more easily than Quantitative Easing. Plus, who knows how to spell quantitative?
Basically, it’s when central banks buy up longer-term assets from banks. So not only was The Fed buying regular treasury bills, it was also buying things like home loans, aka Mortgage-Backed Securities. They did all this with made-up money. This Q.E. has raised worries about massive inflation. When you add a lot of made-up money to the economy, prices can rise.
Milton Friedman observed, "Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon." So if The Fed has been increasing the money supply steadily since 2008, why has the actual inflation rate stayed so low? Of course, as always, the answer is complicated. Many economists say it's because banks haven't loaned out the money. Remember, banks have to hold about 10% of their deposits in reserve. The other 90% is called Excess Reserves, which is basically the amount that banks are free to loan out.
Under normal conditions, banks would prefer not to hold a lot of excess reserves because holding money doesn’t make money. But since 2008, excess reserves skyrocketed. This means banks held the money, and it never really got into the system. Why? Some say it's stricter lending regulations, but also, borrowing a bunch of money for a house seemed a lot scarier. Others suggest that low inflation in the U.S. is the result of uncertainty in Europe, causing foreigners to hold dollars. Some argue it's because the economy is still sputtering.
One thing's for sure: as the economy continues to pick up speed, we’ll see The Fed clamping down on the money supply to increase interest rates. After all, it's The Fed's job to take away the punch bowl just as the party's getting started.
Jacob: So now we've talked about the two main ways economists speed up or slow down the economy: Fiscal Policy, which is changing government spending or taxes, and now Monetary Policy, which is changing the money supply. In an ideal world, the economy would always be perfect, and we wouldn't need these tools. But the world isn't perfect, so sometimes intervention is necessary.
So which one is better? Well, like any clear, unambiguous question in economics, the answer is... it depends. It depends on the severity of the slump. Many economists argue that for your garden-variety fluctuations, monetary policy is more effective. It's usually enacted quickly by experts whose only job is to focus on the state of the economy. But in a very severe downturn, fiscal policy might become much more effective. In 2008, the United States did both.
It also depends on whether your country's central bank is tangled up in politics. The U.S. and many other developed nations have worked hard to isolate their central banks from politicians who might be short-sighted. The result is that monetary policy generally works and doesn't have a lot of side effects.
Adrienne: So the next time you see Janet Yellen in a magazine listed as one of the most influential people, you can shout, "Hey! I know who that is, and I know what she does!"
Jacob: The people in your dentist's office might freak out, but maybe not.
Adrienne: Maybe they watch Crash Course Economics.
Jacob: Thanks for watching—we'll see you next week!